Ro study also demonstrated that Pf extract could activate the memory
Ro study also demonstrated that Pf extract could activate the memory CD4+ T cells, along with the production of virion, and could induce the apoptosis of these cells, suggesting that malaria-induced reservoir purging was trans-4-Hydroxytamoxifen mechanism of action partly related to the Plasmodium itself. This result was partly consistent with a report by Froebel et al., showing that malaria antigens could reactivate the replication of endogenous HIV in cells from HIV-infected adults [13]. Histone acetylation in cells is an epigenetic change that can induce transcriptional activation of HIV-1 provirus and lead to reservoir purging [25,42]. In the present study, higher levels of histone acetylation in the PBLs of Pcinfected monkeys were observed. Activation of NF-B is also associated with provirus reactivation [27]; we observed more NF-B translocation in PBMCs from the Pc-infected monkeys. This result was consistent with Chuchard’s report, which showed that PBMCs in malaria patients maintained higher levels of NF-B activation [43]. Our in vitro studies also confirmed that Pf extracts could induce histone acetylation in resting CD4+ T cells and in latently HIV-1-infected cells (J-Lat cells) and could activate NF-B signaling in monkey PBMCs and in J-Lat cells. Histone acetylation in cells is not necessarily associated with the global activation of host cells, which is PubMed ID:https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28154141 similar to the situation induced by the histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitor VPA [44]. However, reactivation of latent virus would lead to antigen expression on host cells, which would induce antigen-specific cytotoxic lymphocyte responses that would kill the infected cells [4]. Therefore, histone acetylation and NF-B activation may also play important roles in the reduction of the SIV reservoir. In the present study, we observed that malaria caused epigenetic changes in monkeys and that this phenomenon was related to the Plasmodium itself. This result was unexpected. In particular, many environmental factors, such as exercise, diet and medications, can cause epigenetic and developmental epigenetic changes [45,46], whereas our results indicated that a type of microorganism infection can cause such changes and this was related to its extract. Further experiments demonstrated PubMed ID:https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28381880 that J-Lat cells andprimary monkey cells had different response patterns in the presence of Pf extract and that 5 g/ml Pf extract could induce a considerable increase in histone acetylation in J-Lat cells, whereas more Pf extract was needed to induce an increase in histone acetylation in monkey resting CD4+ T cells (Additional file 3: Figure S3). The differences in patterns might be attributable to the different proliferation levels of these two types of cells; J-Lat cells, which are derived from Jurkat cells, are actively proliferating tumor cells, and primary monkey cells are non-actively proliferating cells. The different cell cycle patterns in these two types of cells may cause different sensitivities to Pf extract, as it has been shown that different cell cycle patterns may lead to different sensitivities to certain factors [47,48]. The present study also showed that the increase in the histone acetylation level induced by Pf extract was not due to regulation of HDAC, which has been shown to participate in regulating the histone acetylation level. This finding indicated that the mechanism of Plasmodium inducing histone acetylation was not similar to that of an HDAC inhibitor (Additional file 4: Figure S4). However, the exact mechanism needs to b.